FOR 5034 (start: 2021)

Self-regulation (SR) is a fundamental psychological resource that permits individuals to adequately respond to situational requirement and to successfully pursue personal goals. Accordingly, SR is associated with a wide range of positive developmental outcomes. To date, research on SR has focused primarily on (pre)school-aged children. However, studying the development of SR and its impact on psychological functioning is particularly relevant during adolescence, when external control (e.g., by parents) gradually diminishes and adolescents need to make important decisions increasingly self-dependent. Additionally, they meet many age-specific developmental requirements, such as developing autonomy or integrating into their peer groups. Finally, a so-called "performance dip" in SR has been observed in adolescence, at least partly attributable to delayed brain development.

Impaired SR is seen as causal to the increase in psychological and lifestyle-related physical problems during adolescence. The main goal of the planned research unit therefore is to study the development and effects of SR from middle childhood to adolescence in 6 individual and one coordinating projects that apply a prospective, multi-method research design incorporating the specific age-related developmental requirements.

An existing prospective longitudinal study with N = 1,657 children who were tested at the age of 6-10, 7-11, and 9-13 years will be continued by adding a further measurement point during late adolescence (15-20 yrs, expected sample size: n = 1,074). The projects will explore continuities and discontinuities in the development of SR, predictors of SR-development patterns, as well as the influences of peers who function as age-specific socializing agents. Regarding the effects of SR, the projects cover a broad range of behavioral areas and developmental requirements, which are new or of particular relevance to this developmental stage. Specifically, this includes antisocial behavior, development of moral and identity, disturbed eating behavior, and internalizing problems. We will analyze the incremental contribution of SR by testing whether SR predicts these outcomes above and beyond other well-established predictors and peer influence. The broad expertise within our Research Unit permits us to in¬vestigate a large number of youth-specific outcomes as well as to adapt a multi-method approach when assessing cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of SR.

The project uses physiological measurements (heart rate variability), behavioral tests, as well as self- and proxy-reports (questionnaires, interviews). The individual projects draw on one prospective data set; in combination with the complementary expertise of the PIs, this provides fertile ground for synergistic effects. Thus, the Research Unit is well prepared to generate innovative and multifaceted insights into the development and impacts of SR from childhood to adolescence.

Study Protocol

The Research Unit consists of 6 Projects:

P_01: Effects of Self-Regulatory Skills on Moral Behavior and Moral-Related Aspects of Personality in Adolescence

Moral behavior, for example including prosocial behavior, such as helping, sharing, and comforting, or decisions and reasoning in moral dilemma situations, often requires pronounced self-regulatory skills that allow to suppress primary, selfish behavioral impulses in favor of altruistic behavior. Previous empirical research findings underscore this assumption by showing that high self-regulatory skills, such as executive functions, predict prosocial and moral behavior. Little, however, is known about these links during adolescence. In addition, various cognitive, affective, and behavioral self-regulatory skills were hardly considered simultaneously and, therefore, little is known about their relative importance in predicting moral behavior. Furthermore, potential differential influences of self-regulatory skils on moral-related aspects of personality have hardly been investigated. Hence, factors potentially influencing moral identity and the moral-related trait of justice sensitivity are largely unknown, although building a moral identity is a key developmental task during adolescence and although the justice norm is particularly important in this age range. Self-regulatory skills can be assumed to also promote moral-related aspects of personality, because they should permanently enable the individual to better regulate affect and behavior also in moral-related situations which should be enhanced and finally internalized. In ordert o fill these gaps in research, the present study will assess a variety of affecitve, cognitive, and behavioral, basal and complex self-regulatory skills, moral behavior, moral identiy, and justice sensitivity in about 1500 participants between 15 and 20 years of age that already took part in a longitudinal study with three waves of measurement during in middle childhood. This way, the study will be able to examine which self-regulatory skills show prospective influences on moral behavior and moral-related aspects of personality during adolescence, to what extent there may be differential links, and whether the expected link between self-regulatory skills and moral behavior is mediated by moral-related aspects of personality in this age range. The study results may then be used to design tailored preventive and interventive measures with a special focus on self-regulatory skills in order to promote moral behavior and aspects of personality and, thereby, adaptive developmental patterns in general.

P_02: The influence of peers on the development of self-regulation in class-rooms: A longitudinal multilevel-analysis

Self-regulation is the ability to suppress dominant impulses to modify cognitions, emotions, and behavior. The development of this ability is central for academic and professional success as well as mental and physical health. Self-regulation is not a one-dimensional construct. Successful self-regulation requires the interaction of multiple basal and complex facets are necessary. Multiple predictors for self-regulation like e.g. biological differences or parental behavior were investigated. Less research attention was directed on the impact of peer’s behavior on individual self-regulation. Therefore, the goal of this project is to investigate the influence of classmate s, an important peer group for children and adolescents, on the development of self-regulation. They spend a large amount of the day together in school together with their classmates. Also, the composition of students in a class is stable over an extended time. Additionally, students and their parents often choose the student’s school, but they normally have little influence on their class within the school. As a result, socialization effects can be revealed by analyzing the classmates’ influence on individual behavior. During our project, we do not assume that everybody is affected to the same degree by their classmates’ behavior, but that students with a lower level of self-regulation are especially affected by the behavior of their classmates.One process that mediates the relationship between classmates’ self-regulation and individual self-regulation is the development of conduct problems such as aggressive or delinquent behavior. The lack of self-regulation is a well-established risk factor for conduct problems. At the same time, interacting with people who exhibit conduct problems can be considered a risk factor for lower self-regulation. To answer these research questions, a large longitudinal data set with three measurements will be used (N = 1,657). A fourth additional measurement will be collected during the project. Preliminary analyses of the data collected so far show that the class level can explain significant variance of self-regulation. Also, a two-dimensional structure with one cognitive and one emotional dimension was observed.

P_03: Executive Functions as basic facets of self regulation: Profiles and developmental trajectories in childhood and adolescence, and relations to social information processing

Executive functions (EF) –as cognitive processes that enable the control of behavior, cognition and emotions – are important basic components of self regulation (SR). Both SR and EF show continued development during middle childhood and adolescence, with concurrently increasing demands on socially appropriate behavioral control. So far, however, only few studies have analyzed individual profiles of different EF facets or the stability/variability in developmental trajectories of EF at this age. This project focuses on three cool EF facets (inhibition, working-memory updating, cognitive flexibility/set shifting) and two hot EF facets (delay of gratification, emotional decision making). Existing longitudinal data from a community sample in middle childhood (PIER study: 6-10, 7-11, 9-13 years) will be extended into adolescence (15-20 years). In a person-centered approach, research goals are first, to classify children based on specific values for the five EF facets at T1. Different EF profiles for younger/older children will indicate continued development of certain EF facets, and specific EF profiles (e.g. overall weak EF; relatively weaker inhibition or hot EF) should co-occur with lower complex SR and/or emotional regulation. The second goal is to investigate the longitudinal stability/variability of the EF profiles and to identify trajectory patterns for single EF facets. Here, age differences indicate whether and when a flattening of developmental growth occurs for certain EF facets. Continued development until adolescence is expected for set shifting and hot EF. Of specific interest are decreasing or consistently low EF trajectories, because associated individual characteristics (e.g. SES, verbal skills) can be risk factors for EF development and are therefore relevant for prevention/intervention. The third goal is to examine the relation between EF development in middle childhood and social information processing (SIP) in adolescence. SIP is important for social behavior, and specific SIP styles are associated with problematic conduct and aggression (e.g., tendency for interpreting others’ behavior as hostile; positive evaluation of own aggressive behavior). Because certain EF facets are relevant for certain SIP steps (e.g. delay of gratification for clarification of goals, flexibility for response construction, inhibition for response selection), the analysis of SIP differences for different EF profiles or EF trajectory patterns is important, particularly in adolescence (due to higher SR requirements). These analyses will also include other PIER data on abilities that are relevant for SIP, that is, the ability to understand others’ mental states (theory of mind) and to regulate emotions (especially anger). This project will thus provide important insights into the development of basic SR competencies and their relevance for social cognition during childhood and adolescence.

P_04: Self-regulation as a predictor of developmental trajectories of internalising symptoms in the course of middle childhood to adolescence

Internalising symptoms, such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal and somatic symptoms are among the most common psychological symptoms in adolescence, are highly stable and are associated with severe impairments for those affected. In the context of the genesis of these symptoms, various facets of self-regulation have come into scientific focus showing that a lower capacity for self-regulation is associated with higher internalising symptoms. However, there are still some research gaps: First, previous studies have often been limited to individual facets of self-regulation. Secondly, the number of studies in adolescence is significantly lower than in childhood. Thirdly, there are no studies that have investigated different facets of self-regulation as predictors of differential trajectories of internalising symptoms. Given the increase in internalising symptoms from childhood to adolescence with the risk of chronification in adulthood, the investigation of various facets of self-regulation as potential predictors of unfavourable trajectories e.g. with increasing or stable high internalising symptoms is highly relevant. In order to fill these research gaps, the present project will build on an already existing longitudinal data set with three measurement points in middle childhood (T1: 6-10, T2: 7-11, T3: 9-13 years) to investigate more than 1000 adolescents aged 15-20 years at a fourth measurement point. A variety of basal (e.g., executive functions, emotional reactivity, heart rate variability) and complex (e.g., emotional regulation, planning behaviour) facets of self-regulation, as well as internalising symptoms (and specific anxiety and depressive symptoms) and already established risk factors of internalising symptoms (e.g., low socioeconomic status,) will be re-examined. It will be analysed 1) to what extent different facets of self-regulation predict unfavourable trajectories of internalising symptoms, 2) whether self-regulation makes an incremental contribution to the prediction of these trajectories even when other risk factors are included, 3) the extent to which self-regulation facets interact with each other and with other risk factors in predicting the course of internalising symptoms, and 4) the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between self-regulation facets and internalising symptoms and their reciprocal relations from middle childhood to adolescence. The findings on the predictive value of specific self-regulation facets can thus provide starting points for prevention and intervention to promote healthy psychosocial development.

P_05: The influence of self-regulation and stigmatization on weight and binge eating from middle childhood to adolescence

Obesity and binge eating are serious health problems that occur frequently and often for the first time during adolescence. The role of self-regulation (SR), i.e. the competence to control one's own behavior and experience, is particularly emphasized for their development and maintenance. In addition to SR, the experience of stigmatization (e.g. teasing) and the internalization of social stigmata are increasingly being discussed as significant risk factors. However, the exact interaction between these three risk factors is still unclear. Current models postulate that weight-related stigmatization and its internalization represent psychological stresses, which contribute to weight gain (and uncontrolled eating behavior) via, inter alia, reduced self-regulation. A comprehensive testing of these assumptions is still pending. In addition, previous research has been predominately cross-sectional and focusing on adults or children, while prospective studies with adolescents are missing. Because SR is still developing, negative comments can be particularly significant for the development of eating and weight-related disorders in adolescents. Therefore, the project focuses on a detailed prospective analysis of the interaction between stigma, SR (as a central mediating factor) and (the development of) weight status and BE in the course from childhood to adolescence. Based on an already existing longitudinal data set with three measurement points, more than 1000 adolescents aged 15 to 20 years will be re-examined with a view of different basal and complex self-regulatory skills, weight status, BE, stigmatization and internalization of weight stigma. Thus, it can be determined which specific self-regulatory skills have a long-term influence on weight status and BE in adolescence, whether differential relationships exist, and whether the effect of stigmatization on weight or BE in adolescence is mediated by self-regulatory skills. These findings can support the development of prevention and intervention efforts with special emphasis on self-regulatory skills.

P_06: Self-Regulatory Skills as well as Internal and External Factors as Predictors of Aggressive and Antisocial Behavior in Adolescence

Aggressive and antisocial behavior often has negative consequences in the long run, both for those affected by this behavior and for those who show it. This is particularly problematic because this behavior tends to be stable and to persist into adulthood. During adolescence, some forms of aggressive and antisocial behavior peak in their prevalence rates. It is, therefore, important to know concurrent and long-term risk factors for this behavior in childhood and adolescence, in order to develop effective preventive and intervention measures. Inadequate self-regulatory skills may impede controlling negative behavioral impulses and showing adaptive prospective behavior instead. In line with this reasoning, theories that aim at explaining aggressive and antisocial behavior point to inadequate self-regulatory skills as one important risk factor for this behavior. Already exiting empirical findings underscore these assumptions. There, however, are also still a number of gaps in research. First, there is a general lack of knowledge on the long-term effects of self-regulatory skills during adolescence, also with regard to aggressive and antisocial behavior. Second, little is known about how different physiological, affective, cognitive, and behavioral self-regulatory skills interact in predicting such behavior and which skills are of particular importance in this regard. Third, little is known about whether there may be differential links between different self-regulatory skills and aggressive and antisocial behavior, depending on the specific form of behavior as well as the age of the individuals who show this behavior. Finally, self-regulatory skills have not often been used to predict classes and trajectories of aggressive and antisocial behavior. In order to fill these gaps in research, the present study aims at researching the links between a broad range of basal and complex self-regulatory skills, different forms of aggressive and antisocial behavoir, as well as a number of internal and external control variables, including self-esteem, justice sensitivity, Theory of Mind, experiences of discrimination, family risk factors, and affiliation with deviant peers, during adolescence. The study will include about 1000 participants between 15 and 20 years of age that already took part in a longitudinal study with three waves of measurement during in middle childhood. Controlling for further external and internal known risk factors of aggressive and antisocial behavior will allow to examine whether self-regulatory skills add to explaining incremental variance beyond these factors. The findings from this study may be used to design tailored preventive and interventive measures for different forms of aggressive and antisocial behavior in childhood and adolescence with a special focus on self-regulatory skills.